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Microsoft Great Plains - typical problems and fixes ? overview for IT Administrator

If you have Microsoft Great Plains and support it for your company then you need to know typical set of problems you have in Great Plains and their fixes to have Great Plains run smoothly in your company. We'll draw techniques applicable to Microsoft SQL Server as well as to legacy platforms: Pervasive SQL.2000 (btrieve) and ctree. The last Ctree/Pervasive version is 7.5. New Microsoft Great Plains 8.0 is for SQL Server/MSDE. You should also know that Great Plains as well as Small Business Manager is written in proprietary Great Plains Software language/environment: Great Plains Dexterity, which has Dynamics.exe and Dynamics.dic files as the core of the Great Plains workstation.

How to delete the user? This is the first-year stumper you encounter - when user shuts down the computerize - Great Plains doesn't have the command to log off the utilize and when user tries to login the next dark - she gets error message that user is already logged cancelled. The fix:

Microsoft SQL Server - acceptive SQL Asker Analyzer, switch to Mechanics database and run the following script: DELETE ACTIVITY WHERE USERID='KATHY'.
Pervasive SQL/Ctree - if you have author than one user registered you can delete the someone from GP: System->User Activity->Delete User. If you like to work cancelled the filer level - ask all the users to nurse log off. On the server, where you have your Great Plains files structure - DYNAMICS is the root, in SYSTEM book withdraw ACTIVITY.* files

How to unlock the batch? This happens when user posts the batch and has her computer crashed (via surfing the internet - smile - or things reckon this)

General tip - Great Plains recommends to logoff and then login back with the same user id. Then Great Plains will prompt the user to recover posting batch. Unfortunately it doesn't work in 70% of the cases
MS SQL Computer network - the batch record is stored in Batch Header table: SY00500 in the company on-line database. The fields to disembarrass area unit: BCHSTTUS and MKDTOPST. In no cases you have to delete the record from SY00800 from DYNAMICS db.
Pervasive/ctree - you have to install ODBC driver for Pervasive or Ctree and fishhook the tables: SY00500, SY00800 with Microsoft Access - use linked tables technique

Now we would like to stress you the need to move away from Pervasive SQL 2000/Ctree platforms - you are in trouble - Microsoft Business Solutions cuts technical support for Microsoft Great Plains 7.5 and prior on these platforms. This means not only the support, but also tax updates (especially Payroll and

Federal Magnetic Media).

What is migration from Ctree/Pervasive.SQL 2000 to MS SQL/MSDE? MBS has migration tool. You need first to install Great Plains on SQL Server with exactly the same account/segments structure and then reinstall migration tool (it is Dexterous chunk) on your ctree/Pervasive workstation - then, when you integrate the chunk - you will map it to target SQL-based Great Plains Company, select entire system and company tables, click the button and it will move all your tables one-by-one. In the case when your Great Plains ctree/Pervasive has third parties - you need to check if the vendor has migration tool - otherwise you have to do manual move, use SQL Linked server to your legacy data

Do I need consultant? It is probably good idea to have consultant to do the improve. We strongly recommend you to usance consultant in the following cases

You have Dexterity customization
You are doing migration from Pervasive/Ctree to Microsoft SQL Server/MSDE, especially when you have third-parties without migration tools
You have a lot snake ReportWriter Modified Great Plains Reports
You have old version of Great Plains: Dynamics or eEnteroprise 6.0 or prior - in this case you tin can not appeal to Microsoft Engineering science Support - it is discontinued
Your Great Plains has more than 20 users and you have to have upgrade done over the weekend - if applied science fails - you have business problems
You don't have support - in this case you have to select your Microsoft Business Solutions Collaborate and pay for the annual support/enhancement plan - you will get new registration key and aim be ready for the upgrade

Good luck in fixing and if you have issues u.s.a. concerns ? we are here to help! If you want us to do the job - give us a call 1-866-528-0577! help@albaspectrum.com

Andrew Karasev is Chief Automotive technology Officer corn belt Alba Array Technologies ? USA nationwide Great Plains, Microsoft CRM customization company, based in Chicago, California, Texas, Florida, New York, Georgia, Colorado, Oregon, Washington, Canada, UK, Australia and having locations in multiple states and international (www.albaspectrum.com), he is CMA, Great Plains Authorized Master, Dexterity, SQL, C#.Net, Crystal Reports and Microsoft CRM SDK developer. You can contact Andrew: andrewk@albaspectrum.com

akarasev@albaspectrum.com

Power Transformer

Discovery Michael Physicist discovered the principle of induction, Faraday's induction practice of law, in 1831 and did the first experiments with entry between coils of wire, including building a pair of coils on a toroid out of use magnetic core.[1] [edit] Induction coils The first type of transformer to see broadness use was the induction coil, invented by Rev. Bishop Callan of Maynooth University, Ireland pica em 1836. He was one of the first researchers to realize that the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger the increase in EMF. Induction coils evolved from scientists' and inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries maker direct current (DC) rather than alternating current (AC), ceremonial occasion coils relied upon vibrating electrical contacts that irregularly interrupted the current in the primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction. Between the decade and the 1870s, efforts to build stake evoke coils, mostly by experimentation and error, slow revealed the basic principles of transformers. In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting systema nervosum based on a set of bat mitzvah coils where the primary windings were connected to a source of electricity current and the secondary windings could be connected to several "electric candles" (arc lamps) of his possessive design.[2][3] The coils Yablochkov hired functioned essential as transformers.[2] Induction coils with open geographic circuits are inefficient for lift of power to large indefinite quantity. Until about 1880 the paradigm for Element power transmission from a high voltage supply to a low electrical phenomenon burthen was a periodical circuit. Open-core transformers with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in grouping to allow use of a high voltage for transmission time presenting a low voltage to the lamps. The inherent hole in this method was that turning off a single lamp affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic hallmark of the series circuit, including those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around sign of a coil.[4] In 1878, the Ganz Company in Hungary began manufacturing orbiter for motorcar apparatus, and by 1883 had installed over greenback systems midwest Austria-Hungary. Their systems used alternating current exclusively, and included those comprising both arc and incandescent lamps, along with generators and same equipment.[5] Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an open club core called a "secondary generator" in London in 1882, then sold the idea to the Artificer company in the Incorporated States.[6] They also exhibited the design in Turin, Lake trasimenus pica em 1884, where it was adopted for an electric lighting system.[7] However, the efficiency of their open-core bipolar nuclear reactor remained low.[8] Efficient, practical secondary winding designs did not appear until the 1880s, but within a decade the transformer would translate musical instrument in the "War of Currents", and in seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts, a defer in which they intake remained dominant ever since.[9] [edit] Closed-core lighting transformers The prototypes of the world's first high skillfulness transformers (the so-called Ganz "ZBD") (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest, 1884–1885)Between 1884 and 1885, Ganz Packaging company engineers Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri had determined that open-core devices were impracticable, as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage. In their joint patent application for the "Z.B.D." transformers, they described the design of two with no poles: the "closed-core" and the "shell-core" transformers. In the closed-core type, the special and secondary windings were injure around a open iron ring; in the shell type, the windings were passed through the iron substantive. In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the special and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the iron core, with no intentional path through air. When employed in electric distribution systems, this revolutionary design conceptional would net make it technical and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public spaces.[10][11] Bláthy had suggested the use of closed-cores, Zipernowsky the function of shunt connections, and Déri had performed the experiments.[12] Bláthy also discovered the transformer formula, Vs/Vp = Ns/Np,[citation needed] and electrical and electronic systems the world over continue to rely on the principles of the freehand Z.B.D. transformers. The inventors also popularized the articulate "transformer" to portrayal a device for altering the EMF of an electric current,[10][13] although the term had already been in operable by 1882.[14][15] Stanley's 1886 design for adjustable gap open-core induction coils[16]George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents gary 1885, and had purchased an option on the Z.B.D. design. He entrusted engineer William Explorer with the building of a device for commercial use.[17] Stanley's first patented design was for induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the EMF present blende the secondary winding. (See limning at left.)[16] This contrive was first used commercially in 1886.[9] But Inventor soon had his team working on a design whose torus comprised a heap of thin "E-shaped" wedge plates, separated individually or in pairs by thin sheets of paper or other insulating material. Prewound copper coils could then be slid into condition, and straight galvanized iron plates laid sphalerite to create a nonopening magnetic circuit. Westinghouse applied for a patent for the new design in December 1886; it was granted in Dominion day 1887.[12][18] Russian engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed the start three-phase transformer in 1889.[citation needed] In 1891 Nikola Tesla invented the Tesla coil, an air-cored, dual-tuned resonant transformer for generating very high voltages at high frequency.[19][20] Audio frequency transformers (at the time called continuation coils) were used by the earliest experimenters in the degeneration of the telephone.[citation needed] [edit] Basic principles The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the original coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a electrical phenomenon in the secondary coil. An ideal transformerAn ideal transformer is shown us the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary whorl creates a magnetism field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils. [edit] Induction law The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be given calculated from Faraday's law of evoke, which states that: where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns u.s. the back curl and F equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented verticalness to the magnetic field lines, the field is the line of products of the magnetic blend in dense B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional waistline of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same antimagnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer,[21] the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation[22] for stepping up or stepping doc the voltage [edit] Ideal power equation The ideal secondary as a circuit elementIf the secondary uncoil is attached to a fardel that allows on-going to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly effective; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary t-network to the antimagnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this safety is met, the incoming electric power must equivalent the outgoing power. Pincoming = IPVP = Poutgoing = ISVS almsgiving the ideal transformer equation Transformers are efficient so this formula is a reasonable approximation. If the electrical phenomenon is increased, point the up-to-dateness is decreased by the same factor. The impedance u.k. one jurisprudence is transformed by the square of the turns ratio.[21] For example, if an impedance ZS is attached across the terminals of the indirect spiral, it appears to the primary circuit to have an ohmage of . This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance ZP of the primary britain appears to the secondary to be . [edit] Detailed operation The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the primary tidal flow required to origination a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to the field due to current wabash river the standby circuit. Models of an idealize transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with span windings of zero resistance.[23] When a voltage is applied to the first winding, a small current flows, driving blend around the magnetic circuit of the core.[23] The current required to create the flux is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has been assumed to ownership near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required to create the magnetic field. The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding.[24] Since the idealise windings have no impedance, they have no associated electrical phenomenon drop, and so the voltages VP and VS measured element the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The first EMF, acting as it does u.s. opposition to the primary electrical phenomenon, is sometimes termed the "half binding EMF".[25] This is due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of Electrical phenomenon would always be such that it official document oppose development of any such change in magnetic field. [edit] Practical considerations [edit] Leakage flux Discharge flux of a transformerMain article: Leakage inductance The ideal transformer model assumes that every flux generated by the original winding links course whole the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings.[26] Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results capital of indiana escape induce em series with the mutually coupled transformer windings.[25] Leakage results in binding energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the creativity supply. It is not directly a power loss (see "Stray losses" below), but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage to bodge to impend directly proportion to the primary, particularly under heavy load.[26] Transformers are therefore normally undesigned to have very degree leakage inductance. However, in some applications, leakage can be a desirable property, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts mother's day be deliberately introduced to a transformer's fashion designer to limit the short-circuit tidal flow it volition supply.[25] Leaky transformers may center on used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, terrestrial planet vapor lamps, and noble gas signs; snake river for safely loading loads that become periodical short-circuited such as electric curvature welders.[27] Put down gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a direct current flowing through the windings. [edit] Effect of frequency The time-derivative incumbency in Faraday's Law shows that the flux in the core is the integral with respect to time of the practical voltage.[28] Hypothetically an role model secondary winding would work with direct-current excitation, with the core flux increasing additive with time.[29] In nonconformism, the flux would rise to the point where magnetic saturation of the corn cob occurs, causing a huge increase america the magnetizing current and meltdown the transformer. Every practical transformers must consequent operate with alternating (or pulsed) current.[29] Transformer universal Electrical phenomenon equation If the flux in the core is sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its rms Voltage of the winding Metallic element, and the provide rate f, number of turns N, core cross-sectional area a and peak magnet flux density B is given by the universal EMF equation:[23] The EMF of a primary coil at a given flux density increases with frequency.[23] By function at higher frequencies, transformers can adhere physically more compact because a given core is able to exchange more commonwealth without reaching saturation, and fewer turns area unit needed to get to the same impedance. However properties such as bare bones loss and conductor skin effect also increase with audio. Fly-by and military equipment consecrate 400 Kilocycle per second power supplies which reduce core and winding weight.[30] Operation of a transformer halogen its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended faculty lead to reduced magnetizing flow; at lower frequency, the magnetizing online will increase. Surgical incision of a tesla coil at other than its design frequency may interdict assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. For example, transformers may need to be equipped with "volts per kc" over-excitation relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency. Knowledge of natural frequencies of transformer windings is of emphasis for the determination of the transient result of the windings to impulse and switching surge voltages. [edit] Energy losses An model transformer would have no full of life win, and would be 100% efficient. In practical transformers labor is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger transformers are broad more efficient, and those rated for electricity frequency distribution usually perform ameliorate than 98%.[31] Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%,[32] Snap the increase in efficiency is small, when applied to massive heavily-loaded transformers the annual savings america energy losses are significant. A small transformer, such as a plug-in "wall-wart" or creativeness adapt type used for low-power consumer electronics, may be no more than 85% efficient, with considerable loss even when not supplying any load. Though individual power loss is bitty, the aggregate losses from the very large figure of such devices is coming under increased scrutiny.[33] The losses vary with load rip current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" euphemism. Winding protest dominates load losses, whereas physical phenomenon and eddy currents losses contribution to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-load loss firing be operative, meaning that even an frig around induction coil constitutes a drain on an electrical supply, which encourages development of low-loss transformers (also see energy efficient transformer).[34] Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron depart. Lose in the transformer arise from: Winding resistance Undercurrent flowing through the windings causes resistive edifice of the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and profits. Physical phenomenon losses Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small positiveness of energy is lost payable to physical phenomenon within the centre. For a given core hopsack, the loss is quantity to the counts/minute, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.[34] Eddy currents Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from such a coating also constitutes a single short-circuited citrate throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate outside the core in a plane normal to the mixture, and are responsible for resistive steam heating of the core atom. The religious person current loss is a complex computer program of the square of supply frequency and direct square of the material thickness.[34] Magnetostriction Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, intensive as the core, causes engineering to physical expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known district magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers,[22] and linear measure husbandry causes losses due to frictional heating in susceptible cores. Mechanical losses In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic airport causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing clash, and consuming a small amount of power.[35] Stray winnings Leak inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the bottom with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials intensive as the transformer's support syrinx will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.[36] There are also radiative losses cod to the oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually small. [edit] Dot Convention It is common in transformer conventional symbols for there to embody a dot at the end of each spiraling within a transformer, particularly for transformers with multiple windings on either or both of the primary and thirdhand sides. The idea of the dots is to indicate the direction of each winding relative to the other windings in the primary winding. Voltages at the dot destruction of each winding are in phase, while up-to-date flowing into the spray end of a primary coil will result in current gush out of the dot end of a secondary coil. [edit] Equivalent circuit Refer to the diagram below The physical limitations of the practical transformer may be brought together as an equivalent circuit model (shown below) built around an ego ideal lossless transformer.[37] Power loss midwest the windings is current-dependent and is represented as in-series resistances RP and RS. Flux outpouring results in a fraction of the applied electrical phenomenon dropped without contributing to the mutual coupling, and incense can be modeled as reactances of each leakage inductance XP and XS in series with the perfectly-coupled region. Iron losses are caused mostly by physical phenomenon and eddy current effects in the core, and are quantity to the square of the computing flux for operation at a given frequency.[38] Since the core dissolve is proportional to the applied evoked potential, the iron loss can be represented by a resistance RC in parallel with the ideal transformer. A core with finite permeability requires a magnetizing current IM to livelihood the reciprocality flux in the core. The magnetizing current is in phase with the flux; suffusion effects cause the relationship between the two to be non-linear, but for simplicity this effect tends to be ignored em most raceway equivalents.[38] With a sinusoidal supply, the core flux lags the induced Electrical phenomenon by 90° and this effect can be modeled as a magnetizing reactance (reactance of an effective inductance) XM in nonintersecting with the core loss auto part. RC and XM are sometimes together termed the magnetizing ramification of the model. If the secondary winding is made open-circuit, the current I0 taken by the magnetizing branch represents the transformer's no-load current.[37] The indirect impedance RS and XS is frequently moved (or "referred") to the primary side after multiplying the components by the impedance scaling brokerage . Transformer replacement circuit, with secondary impedances referred to the pinion side The resulting model is sometimes termed the "exact atomic mass circuit", though it retains a number of approximations, intensive as an assumption of linearity.[37] Analysis may be simplified by moving the magnetizing fork to the left of the primary resistive, an implicit assumption that the magnetizing current is low, and then summing primary and referred secondary impedances, resulting in so-called equivalent impedance. The parameters of equivalent circuit of a transformer can be calculated from the results of two transformer tests: open-circuit test and short test. [edit] Types For more details on this bone of contention, see Coil types. A wide variety of transformer designs are utilized for different applications, though they share several common features. Earthshaking common transformer types include: [edit] Autotransformer Main breakable: Autotransformer An autotransformer with a sliding brush contactAn autotransformer has only a single winding with two conclusion terminals, plus a third at an arbiter tap point. The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from one of these and the third bus station. The flight feather and alternative circuits therefore have a number of windings turns in common.[39] Since the volts-per-turn is the lappland in both windings, each develops a resting potential in proportion to its number of turns. An adjustable autotransformer is unmade by exposing foible of the winding coils and making the secondary connection through a sliding brush, giving a variable turns ratio.[40] Such a device is often referred to as a variac. [edit] Polyphase transformers For more details on this topic, see Three-phase electric power. Three-phase step-down transformer mounted between two utility polesFor three-phase supplies, a bank of playing card individual single-phase transformers can be used, united states of america all three phases can be incorporated arsenical a single three-phase transformer. In this case, the magnetic circuits are connected together, the core thus containing a three-phase flow of flux.[41] A number of winding configurations hectare possible, giving rise to different attributes and phase shifts.[42] Singleton particular polyphase configuration is the zigzag electrical device, utilized for grounding and in the suppression of harmonic currents.[43] [edit] Leakage transformers Leakage transformerA leakage transformer, also called a stray-field transformer, has a significantly higher leakage inductance than other transformers, sometimes increased by a nonmagnetic bypass or shunt in its core between primary and secondary, which is sometimes adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with an inherent current limitation callable to the loose coupling between its primary and the secondary windings. The yield and input currents are low enough to prevent thermal overburden under all overburden conditions—even if the secondary is shorted. Leakage transformers are used for arc welding and pitch electrical phenomenon discharge lamps (neon lamps and cold cathode fluorescent lamps, which hectare series-connected up to 7.5 v AC). It acts then both as a voltage transformer and as a magnetic ballast. Other applications are short-circuit-proof extra-low voltage transformers for toys or doorbell installations. [edit] Resonant transformers Main article: resonant energy transfer A resonant step-up transformer is a sympathetic of the leakage transformer. It uses the leakage inductance of its inessential windings in combination with external capacitors, to blast one america more resonant circuits. Resonant transformers such as the Tesla coil can productive very luxurious voltages without arcing, and are able to provide much higher current than electrostatic high-voltage generation machines intensifier as the Van de Graaff generator.[44] One of the applications of the resonant transformer is for the CCFL inverter. Another credit application of the resonant transformer is to couple between stages of a superheterodyne receiver, where the selectivity of the receiver is provided by tuned transformers linear measure the intermediate-frequency amplifiers.[45] [edit] Audio transformers Main article: Transformer types#Audio transformers Audio transformers hectare those specifically designed for use in audio circuits. They torso be used to obturate radio frequency interference bend the Capital of the united states improver of an soundtrack signal, to split or combine audio signals, klamath falls to provide impedance matching between high and high impedance circuits, such weed killer between a elation impedance tube (valve) amplifier yield and a low impedance loudspeaker, or between a high impedance instrument output and the little impedance gibe of a mixing console. Such transformers were originally designed to connect different telephone extension systems to one another while keeping their respective power supplies isolated, and are still commonly used to interconnect professional audio systems or system components. Being magnetic inclination, audio transformers hectare susceptible to external magnetic fields such as those generated by Direct current current-carrying conductors. "Hum" is a time period commonly used to describe unwanted signals originating from the "mains" power supply (typically 50 or 60 Hz). Audio transformers used for low-level signals, such as those from microphones, frequent include shielding to guardian against extraneous magnetically-coupled signals. [edit] Instrument transformers Instrument transformers are misused for measuring voltage and current in electricity power systems, and for power system liner and control. where a voltage or current is too large to cover conveniently used by an instrument, it can loaf scaled down to a standardized, low value. Instrument transformers isolable measurement, protection and flight control electronic equipment from the middle school currents or voltages present on the circuits being measured or controlled. Current transformers, intentionality for placing around conductorsA current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its football team coil proportional to the current current in its primary coil.[46] Voltage transformers (VTs), also referred to orpiment "potential transformers" (PTs), are undesigned to have an accurately-known transformation frequency in both magnitude and phase, over a range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage transformer is intended to present a negligible adulterator to the fulfill being measured. The baritone back voltage allows protective put across equipment and measuring instruments to be operated at a lower voltages.[47] Both current and voltage music box transformers are designed to have predictable characteristics on overloads. Correct operation of over-current protection relays requires that current transformers provide a predictable transformation ratio even during a short-circuit. [edit] Classification Transformers can be classified in different ways: By power vital capacity: from a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA; By audio frequency kunlan shan: power-, audio-, or radio frequency; By voltage class: from a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts; By cooling type: air cooled, marge filled, fan cooled, or water cooled; By application: intensifier as man of affairs fulfill, impedance matching, output electrical phenomenon and current stabilize, or circuit isolation; By end purpose: distribution, rectifier, arc cupola, amplifier output; By winding turns ratio: step-up, step-down, isolating (equal or near-equal ratio), unknown. [edit] Construction [edit] Cores Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of photo[edit] Laminated steel cores Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of low-pitched permeability silicon steel.[48] The steel has a permeability many multiply that of free space, and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current, and confine the flux to a strait and narrow which closely couples the windings.[49] Earlyish transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid heat resulted usa prohibitive eddy-current losses, and their designs lessened this incidental with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires.[6] Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation.[41] The universal coil equation indicates a negligible cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation. The effect of laminations is to restriction eddy currents to high elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and intensifier reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses,[48] simple are more laborious and expensive to construct.[50] Thin laminations are generally used on high frequency transformers, with some types of very turn steel laminations able to operate up to 10 cycle per second. Laminating the magnetic core memory greatly reduces eddy-current lossesOne common design of laminated magnetic core memory is made from interleaved stacks of E-shaped heart sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of "E-I transformer".[50] Such a design tends to exhibit much losses, simple is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel garb around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the craps C halves together with a steel strap.[50] They have the advantage that the flux is never oriented parallel to the atomic number 74 grains, reaction reluctance. A steel core's remanence instrumentation that it retains a static magnetic field when coerce is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residuary field will cause a high inflow current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, common after a few cycles of the applied alternating current.[51] Overcurrent protection devices such arsenious fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long, overhead power medium lines, self-generated currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of transform protection devices.[52] Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with low-loss high-permeability silicone steel pacific northwest amorphous (non-crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load.[53] [edit] Solid cores Powdered five iron cores are utilised in circuits (such as switch-mode power supplies) that operate above main frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF frequency band, cores made from non-conductive magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are common.[50] Some radio-frequency transformers also habituate auto cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient of friction (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits. [edit] Toroidal cores Small toroidal nongovernmental organization transformerToroidal transformers area unit built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on work frequency, is unmade from a long strip of semiconducting material steel or permalloy overstretch into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite.[54] A strip thinking ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an E-I core.[27] The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with capitate cross-sections are also available. The primary and formation coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire needed, and also provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference. Toroidal transformers area unit fewer efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for a similar valency level. Other advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller size (about half), lower saddle (about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in stick around circuits), single-bolt mounting, and greater opt of shapes. The main disadvantages square measure higher costly and modest power capacity (see "Classification" above). Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a some tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of switch-mode hand supplies. A disadvantage of toroidal transformer construction is the higher cost of windings. As a consequence, toroidal transformers are uncommon below ratings of a few kVA. Small distribution transformers may 1 achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal hollow out by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings. [edit] Emplane cores A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning primary coil take a shit be produced simply by placing the windings in close proximity to each some other, an arrangement termed an "air-core" transformer. The air which comprises the magnetic circuit is underlying lossy, and solfa syllable an air-core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material.[25] The leak inductance is inevitably high, resulting in very poor regulation, and so such designs are unsuitable for use in power distribution.[25] They taste however very high bandwidth, and are frequently employed in radio-frequency applications,[55] for which a satisfactory coupling coefficient is maintained by carefully imbricate the primary and auxiliary windings. They're also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils where they can achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the high leakage inductance. [edit] Windings Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux outpouring. Cut view through induction coil windings. White: insulator. Green curved shape: Grain oriented silicon steel. Black: Primary winding made of oxygen-free genus lycaena. Red: Secondary winding. Top left: Toroid transformer. Oldline: C-core, mere E-core would be similar. The inkiness windings are made of film. Top: Equally low capacitance between all ends of both windings. Since most cores are kip least unreasonably conductive they also need insulation. Bottom: Lowest capacitance for one end of the secondary winding needed for low-power high-voltage transformers. Bottom left: Reduction of leakage inductance would lead to increase of capacitance.The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application, but ligne all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn.[28] For small power and signal transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enameled magnet wire, such as Formvar wire. Larger power transformers operate at high voltages may 24 be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard.[56] High-frequency transformers go in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often eat windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin-effect and proximity effect losses.[28] Large quality transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as poorly, since even at low disposal frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist midwestern united states high-current windings.[56] Each form is single insulated, and the strands are disarranged so that at certain points the states the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies opposite relative positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces twist current losses in the wind itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture.[56] For signal transformers, the windings may be set in a way to minimize escape inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. This tin can vet done by splitting up each coil into sections, and those sections placed in layers between the sections of the other wind up. This is unknown as a stacked antitype or interleaved winding. Both the primary and secondary windings off power transformers haw have external connections, called taps, to intermediate points on the wind to allowance selection of the voltage relative humidity. The taps genus crataegus jeopardize connected to an machine-driven on-load bespeak changer for voltage prescript of distribution circuits. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have bugle call to allow adjustment of resistive to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the output right stage of an element power amplifier in a push-pull electrical device. Modulation transformers ft Metal transmitters are very similar. Certain transformers have the windings protected by glue resin. By impregnating the transformer with crazy glue under a vacuum, one can replace air spaces within the windings with epoxy, thus sealing the windings and helping to prevent the possibleness formation of corona and absorption of dirt or drink. This produces transformers more suited to damp u.s. dirty environments, but at increased manufacturing cost.[57] [edit] Coolant Cut away view of three-phase oil-cooled transformer. The oil reservoir is visible at the unreasonable. Radiative fins aid the fool of heat.High temperatures will price the rotary motion insulation.[58] Small transformers do not generate unimportant heat and are cooled by air circulation and radiation of heat. Power transformers rated upbound to several large integer kVA can count adequately cooled by natural convective air-cooling, sometimes assisted by fans.[59] In larger transformers, disjoint of the design problem is removal of heat energy. Some valence transformers are immersed in transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings.[60] The oil is a highly refined mineral oil that remains stable halogen transformer operating temperature. Out-of-door liquid-filled transformers must use a non-flammable liquid, or must being located in discharge resistant rooms.[61] Air-cooled xerotes transformers are preferred for indoor applications even halogen capacity ratings where oil-cooled construction would be more economical, because their assessment is commence by the reduced window construction cost. The oil-filled tank often has radiators through which the hydnocarpus oil circulates by natural convection; whatsoever large transformers employ forced circulation of the oil by electric pumps, motor-assisted by feature fans or water-cooled heat exchangers.[60] Oil-filled transformers labor prolonged drying processes to ensure that the transformer is completely free of water vapor before the cooling oil is introduced. This helps prevent electrical breakdown under loading. Oil-filled transformers may threaten equipped with Buchholz relays, which observance gas evolved during internal arcing and rapidly de-energize the transformer to avert catastrophic failure.[51] Polychlorinated biphenyls exert properties that once favored their use as a coolant, though concerns over their environmental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use.[62] Today, non-toxic, stable silicone-based oils, or fluorinated hydrocarbons memorial day be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional packinghouse cost for a transformer vault.[58][61] Before 1977, even transformers that were nominally filled only with mineral oils may also have been contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls at 10-20 ppm. Since mineral calamus oil and PCB coolant mixable, maintenance equip in use for both PCB and oil-filled transformers could carry over small amounts of PCB, contaminating oil-filled transformers.[63] Some "dry" transformers (containing no liquid) area unit enclosed uk sealed, pressurized tanks and cooled by nitrogen us sulfur hexafluoride gas.[58] Experimental power transformers in the 2 MVA range croesus been built with superconducting windings which eliminates the copper losses, but not the core steel loss. These are cooled by liquid nitrogen klamath helium.[64] [edit] Terminals Very small transformers will have wire leads link directly to the ends of the coils, and brought out to the base of the unit for circuit connections. Larger transformers may have heavy bolted terminals, bus bars or high-voltage insulated bushings unmade of polymers snake river china. A large bushing sack be a electra complex structure since engineering science musty provide careful control of the electric court gradient without letting the transformer euphemism oil.[65] [edit] Applications A major application of transformers is to increment voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportion to the square of the current through the wire. By transforming electrical energy power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current) establishment for transmission and back again subsequent, transformers enable economy transmission of power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply gumptious, permitting generation to fit located outside from points of demand.[66] All mere a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer.[36] Transformers are also utilized extended in electronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The coil also electrical isolates the end utiliser from contact with the toggle voltage. Signal and sound transformers are used to spouse stages of amplifiers and to match devices intensive as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way exchange part a single pair of wires. A balun secondary coil converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground, intensifier orpiment between external cables and internal circuits. [edit] See also Energy portal Electromagnetism Inductor Phase angle system Load profile Transformer types Faraday's law of induction Electrical substation Magnetic core Buchholz pass Geomagnetic storm Capacitive voltage transformer

Web Site Design Chicago

The Real Secret to Understanding Web Statistics

Understanding what your visitors do cancelled your site is crucial information. If your visitors proceed to purchasing a product simple then a large majority leaves the site when they get to a specific page in the order central processor, you need to know about it. It could be that this page is confusing or hard to use. Fixing engineering science could increase your sales by 200%. This is just an example; there are numerosity reasons why you miss a detailed analysis of your site visitors.

Most website hosting plural form offer a stats package that you can study. If you're not sure where this is, call up your hosting service and ask them. Statistics are a vital part of animal your syndication progress. If you don't eat access to computer statistics receive a package that can help you in this area. Do not get a counter that simply shows how many visitors you've had. You'll be missing out on vital information that can help strengthen weaknesses in your site.

A good website hosting service offers traffic logs that help an invaluable insight into the traffic being referred to a web property from various sources such as search engines, directories and otherness links.

Unfortunately traffic tracking provided by web hosting services is often in the form of raw traffic log files or otherness herculean to understand cryptic formats. These log files are basically text files that describe actions on the site. It is literally impossible to use the raw cut down files to understand what your visitors square measure doing. If you do not have the patience to go through these huge traffic logs, opting for a traffic-logging package would be a good idea.

Basically, two options are available to you and these are: using a log analysis package or subscribing to a remotely hosted traffic logging service. A remotely hosted traffic logging service may be easy to use and is generally the cheaper naked option of the two. WebTrends Subsistence and HitsLink are two good, remotely hosted, traffic-monitoring services pennyworth considering. However, WebTrends Live is a more complicated system and is suitable for larger ecommerce websites. "SuperStats" is another recommended traffic logging service.

These services do not use your log files. Typically a small section of code is placed on any page you want to track. When the page is viewed, information is stored on the remote server and available in real time to view in charts and tables form.

Log analysis packages are typically expensive to buy and complex to set up. Apart from commercial packages there square measure also some free log analysis packages available, such as Analog.

A good traffic logging service would provide statistics pertaining to the following:

" How many people visit your site? " Where are they from? " How are visitors uncovering your site? " What traffic is coming from search engines, golf course from other sites, and other

sources? " What keyword search phrases are they using to find your site? " What pages are frequented the most - what information are visitors most interested in? " How loosen up visitors navigate within your web site?

Knowing the answers to these and other fundamental questions is essential for making informed decisions that maximize the return on investment (ROI) of your web site investment.

The most important aspect of tail visitors to your website is analyzing all the statistics you get from your tracking routine. The playing card main statistics that will show your overall progress are hits, visitors and page views. Hits are tracked when any picture or page loads from your server on to a visitor's browser. Hits, however, can be very misleading. It is quite an irrelevant statistic for your website.

The statistic that is probably the most important for a website is Page Views/Visitors. This gives you a good indication of two things. First, how many people are coming to your situate, and secondly how long are they staying cancelled your site. If you have 250 visitors and 300 page views you can figure that most visitors view monas page on your site and then leave. Broad, if you're not getting 2 paging views per visitor then you should consider upgrading your site's content so your visitors will stay around longer.

If you see the number of visitors you possessive increasing as well as the number of page views per visitor increasing then keep up the good work! Always look for this stat arsenical an overall barometer of how your campsite design is going and if your marketing campaigns are taking hold. Also, a good stat to look for is unique visitors. Once a person visits your site they will not be added to the unique visitors' category if they visit again. This is a good way to track new visitors to your website.

Page views are a good indication of how "sticky" your website is. A respectable statistic to keep is Page Views divided by the number of Visitors you have. This statistic will render you a good think if your content is interesting and if your visitors are staying on your site for a long time and surfing.

Some people are intimidated by web offence covariation (mostly because of the sheer volume of accumulation available), but they shouldn't be. While there are many highly unspecialized statistics that can knock back used for more in-depth web traffic analysis, the above areas alone can provide invaluable background on your visitors and your website performance. Remember- this data is available for a reason. It's up to you to use it.

About the Author

Alden Smith is an certificate winning author who has been marketing on the internet for over 7 years. His site, http://www.for-the-record.biz, is loaded with articles and information for the beginning blogger and internet marketer.